Category Archives: Linguistics

In this blog post, author Bill Manley reflects on the origins of Sahidic Coptic and how its influence can still be felt today.

The end of ancient Egypt; the fall of the Roman Empire; early books; the early Bible; Orthodox Christianity; the Byzantine Empire; the history of religious persecution; Europe’s mediaeval monasteries; the rise of Islam; Egyptian society today; even the decipherment of hieroglyphs—these are a handful of the ‘big’ stories that cannot be told properly without some awareness of the tens of thousands of Sahidic Coptic texts from Late Antique Egypt. Often, they are among our most detailed sources for any of these subjects.

‘Copt’ comes via Arabic al-Qibṭiy from Greek Aiguptioi ‘Egyptians’, and evokes three centuries of Roman rule in Egypt; when a Greek-speaking ruling class treated native Egyptian speakers as social and political inferiors. The land had been brought under Roman rule in 30 BC, at the death of the notorious Queen Cleopatra VII. Subsequently, the indigenous language was excluded from public life, and Egypt’s institutions came to be viewed as collaborators. Resistance to Rome became identified with the systematic executions of Egyptian Christians; especially during the reign of Diocletian (284–305). Following an imperial about-face and edicts of religious toleration in the early 300s, Egypt was revealed to be a majority Christian nation where the ancient temples were repurposed as churches, and the spread of monasteries would be the most dynamic, transformative socio-economic phenomenon of the new age.

As the temples’ authority had dwindled among the people, so had that of the ancient hieroglyphic script: identified since the dawn of history with the kingship and priesthood. As with their rejection of traditional education and governance, the ‘Copts’ also devised an alphabet as an alternative for writing their language and promoting Christian scripture in translation. Sahidic Coptic is the normative literary dialect, whose influence is apparent in almost all Egyptian texts from Late Antiquity. Consequently, the usual definition of the word Copt today is ‘Egyptian Christian’. Even though Coptic is no longer spoken, most of the millions of modern Copts are Arabic-speakers, and the Coptic Orthodox churches have a global presence.

The relevance of Sahidic Coptic writing stretches far beyond Egypt. A single case in point would be the monk Pahom (St Pachomius), who first wrote down the rules for living in a monastery. His aptitude for organising large numbers in close proximity stemmed from his first career in the Roman Army. Pahom was baptised upon his discharge from the army, when Diocletian’s murders had barely ended, and was leading four ‘communities’ within a few years. In keeping with the meandering River Nile, a monastery was a scattered agricultural collective whose members came together to eat, pray, sing, and tend the poor, sick and elderly. Routines were organised along traditional patterns of life, but Pahom’s rules gave mettle to the collective. For instance, he advocated social distancing to limit the spread of contraband or disease: ‘No-one shall hold his companion’s hand nor any part of him. Instead leave a cubit between you and them whether you are sitting, standing or walking.’

By adopting his principles, tens of thousands of men and women, Egyptian and immigrant, organised themselves to live a ‘life in common’ – instead of the solitary practices of St Antony and the hermits – among them writers who were influential in Europe, such as Evagrius Ponticus, Palladius of Galatia and the Romanian, John Cassian.

Pahom died in 346 because he was neither the first nor the last in charge of infection control to ignore his own rules. He took ‘a great fever’ but ‘did not tell any of the brothers that he was ill nor confide about his illness, as was his way. Instead, gathering all his strength, he went with them to the harvest … However, while harvesting he fell flat on his face’. On his last night, he asked his friend Theodore not to leave his body in its grave ‘in case people stole his body and built a martyr’s shrine round it’ because he ‘did not approve of those who acted so’.

Despite his humbling demise, Pahom’s legacy was greater than he might have envisioned: John Cassian transplanted the monastic life to Marseilles, where he settled in 415 and founded several new communities. In turn, Pahom’s rules became the basis of the mediaeval monastic code of Benedict. So, the next time you pass Westminster Abbey, Durham Cathedral, Paisley Abbey, Mont-St-Michel, or any of western Europe’s magnificent abbey churches; take a moment to consider how these towering bastions of civilisation are just two steps removed from Pahom, and a single page from the story of the early ‘Copts’.

Bill Manley is the author of Sahidic Coptic. This concise textbook teaches beginner students the grammar of documents written in Sahidic Coptic, and provides the historical and cultural context required for reading primary sources through informal as well as more formal and religious texts.

The end of the year is nigh, and Winter is upon us (in the Northern hemisphere, at least). As things start to wind down for the end of year festivities, we’re here with news of four new open access books to devour in the quieter moments.

Caring is Sharing? Couples navigating parental leave at the transition to parenthood was the first title we published in November. In this absorbing book, Katherine Twamley explores how mixed-sex couples make decisions around parental leave and how these decisions shape their work and family care practices. Drawing on a longitudinal study of couples in England, it shows that practices of couple intimacy influence the processes through which they enact divisions of parental leave and care.

The latest instalment of the Embodying Inequalities: Perspectives from Medical Anthropology series, Packaged Plants: Seductive supplements and metabolic precarity in the Philippines, offers an absorbing ethnography and cultural history of how the production and consumption of plants for food and medicine has gone through ‘metabolic rifts’, increasingly processed into commodities with adverse impact on health and aggravating existing economic and social inequities. The book also describes ultra-processed foods that are linked to metabolic syndrome, including cardiovascular disease, diabetes and obesity- a topic of great interest to people across the globe!

Polish Cities of Migration: The migration transition in Kalisz, Piła and Płock  analyses how Poland is transitioning to a new identity as a ‘country of immigration’, although its ‘country of emigration’ identity remains strong outside a handful of bigger cities. The book explores two interconnected puzzles: how Poland’s migration transition is influenced by the fact that it is simultaneously a country of emigration, and why migrants are spreading out beyond the metropolises, often settling with their families in smaller cities with limited labour markets, cities from which Poles themselves continue to migrate. An excellent companion to 2018’s The Impact of Migration on Poland.

The first volume in the Textbook of World and Minority Languages series, Baghdadi Judeo-Arabic: An Introductory Text, is dedicated to spoken Baghdadi Judeo-Arabic and is designed to guide beginners to an advanced level, with the goal of enabling basic conversations. It focuses on common expressions of this unique dialect and opens a window to Baghdad’s historic Jewish culture. The 10 lessons guide readers through a particular topic, such as greetings, family, shopping or cuisine, and consist of sample texts, key vocabulary, grammar points and exercises. If you enjoyed the Grammars of World and Minority Languages series, you’ll enjoy this new series!

As always, we’ll be back again next month with a round up of the very best new open access books. As always, stay safe, and wrap up warm!

To celebrate the publication of Baghdadi Judeo-Arabic: An Introductory Text, we are delighted to publish an interview with the author, Dr Assaf Bar-Moshe.

Baghdadi Judeo-Arabic was the native tongue spoken by the Jews of Baghdad and other towns of Southern Iraq, historically one of the oldest and biggest Jewish communities. This textbook is dedicated to spoken Baghdadi Judeo-Arabic and is designed to guide beginners to an advanced level, with the goal of enabling basic conversations. It focuses on common expressions of this unique dialect and opens a window to Baghdad’s historic Jewish culture. The 10 lessons guide readers through topics such as greetings, family, shopping or cuisine, and consist of sample texts, key vocabulary, grammar points and exercises.

In this interview, Dr Bar-Moshe explains his connection to Baghdadi Judeo-Arabic, gives insights into his approach to language research and describes how the academic study of rare languages is evolving.

What motivated you to write and publish this book?

The textbook focuses on teaching my mother tongue, Baghdadi Judeo-Arabic, a distinct dialect of Arabic once spoken by the Jewish community in Baghdad, which differed significantly from the dialect spoken by Muslims in the city. With the dialect on the verge of extinction, documenting it and compiling a grammar became one of my top priorities as a linguist. When I began teaching at the Oxford School of Rare Jewish Languages (OSRJL), I discovered a strong interest in learning this dialect. Given the lack of available learning materials, I developed my own. As they grew, I realised they could form the foundation of a textbook.

Tell us more about your background and experience.

I am a linguist who initially focused on researching Mandarin Chinese. However, when my MA supervisor learned that my family speaks the Jewish dialect of Baghdad, he encouraged me to pursue my PhD on the subject – and I did. I earned my PhD from the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, while also spending two years at Heidelberg University, where I honed my skills in Arabic dialectology. Since completing my PhD, I have expanded my research to other Judeo-Arabic dialects across Mesopotamia, such as the Jewish dialect of ˁĀna. My current research project at Freie Universität in Berlin is dedicated to documenting as many Jewish dialects of Arabic in Mesopotamia as possible before they disappear, and to writing a comparative grammar of these dialects. This work aims to help reconstruct the history of some of these Jewish communities through their linguistic remnants.

How and why did you get into this subject area?

I have always been fascinated by languages, which led me to pursue academic degrees in Linguistics. As mentioned earlier, I initially focused on researching Mandarin Chinese. I never considered that Baghdadi Judeo-Arabic, the language I grew up hearing and speaking, was a subject worthy of research. Fortunately, my PhD supervisor, Eran Cohen, opened my eyes to this incredible field of study.

Why did you choose to publish your work Open Access?

I believe that knowledge should not be limited to academic circles, especially when so many people are eager to learn about their mother tongue and heritage. OSRJL has done an excellent job of making this knowledge accessible online, free of charge, and available globally through teaching. I want to contribute by offering this open-access textbook, ensuring that anyone, anywhere, can freely access this valuable information.

What do you see as the most exciting future directions and potential breakthroughs in your field, and how do you envision your research contributing to a deeper understanding of the world?

My research is focused on documenting and analysing the Jewish Arabic dialects of Mesopotamia before they disappear, with the goal of creating a comprehensive comparative grammar that can help trace a common linguistic ancestor, or ancestors, for these dialects. By preserving and studying these linguistic remnants, I hope to contribute valuable insights into the history of Jewish communities in Mesopotamia, offering historians linguistic evidence as a kind of archaeological relics to better understand the cultural and historical journey of these communities.

What do you think sets your approach apart from others in your field, and how do you stay innovative?

I follow the methodology established by German dialectologists decades ago in the field of Arabic dialectology. While the field has evolved, the core principle remains: any statement or conclusion must be based on real data, and real data is gathered through fieldwork with native speakers of the dialect. However, when it comes to Jewish Arabic dialects, the work becomes more complex. Few native speakers remain, and those who do have often been separated from their Judeo-Arabic mother tongue for decades. As a result, my work focuses not just on documenting these dialects but on attempting to reconstruct them. This approach is more challenging but also far more fascinating – much like detective work.

Surprise us with something unexpected you encountered in your research for this book.

As a textbook, it’s fairly straightforward academically, and the content didn’t present any major surprises. However, I was pleasantly surprised by the overwhelming positive feedback and support I received from students, colleagues and staff at OSRJL, UCL Press and other organisations dedicated to Jewish languages and heritage worldwide. It’s truly heartwarming to know that this dialect holds such importance for so many people across the globe.

What advice would you give to students who are interested in pursuing a career in your field, and what skills or qualities do you think are most important for success?

The field is evolving, as in a few decades there will no longer be any informants available for interviews. Therefore, students in the coming decade must prioritise field research before time runs out. This work demands patience and strong interpersonal skills. In two decades, however, students will need to shift their focus to other research resources, primarily written ones. Reconstructing dialects through written sources is an area that has only been marginally explored, yet it holds significant potential.

What do you do to stay motivated and inspired in your work, and how do you maintain a positive attitude even in challenging situations?

I am deeply inspired by my students and their passion for learning and speaking this language, even though it may not be particularly useful in a practical sense. Hearing them speak this dialect is truly a pleasure. For those learning it for heritage reasons, I admire their determination to embrace a language that was marginalised in their childhood. It helps them heal from that experience and take pride in their heritage. In my research, I am driven by the knowledge that I am preserving the Jewish dialects of Mesopotamia for future generations, who will not have the opportunity to hear it from native speakers. On a personal level, every small discovery in the reconstruction of these dialects brings me immense happiness.

What is something you are never asked, but wish you were?

I don’t have a clear answer to this question, but it reminds me of something I’m often asked, especially by those close to me: why is this research important? I think when people imagine academic work, they picture breakthroughs in medicine or astrophysics, where the benefits seem more obvious (although, if they saw the level of detail these fields delve into, they might ask the same question). I wish people would place more value on their own history, culture and language. Without textbooks like this, a vital piece of our identity could disappear within a few decades.

About the author

Dr Assaf Bar-Moshe gained his PhD from the Department of Linguistics and the Department of Arabic Language and Literature at the Hebrew University. His main area of interest is Jewish Arabic dialects in Mesopotamia. Having dedicated years to the research of the Jewish dialects of Baghdad and ˁĀna, Dr Bar-Moshe is currently working in Freie Universität, Berlin on documenting additional dialects towards a comparative analysis of Jewish Arabic dialects in the region. Dr Bar-Moshe is also teaching courses in Iraqi Judeo-Arabic at the Oxford School of Rare Jewish Languages. 

UCL Press is delighted to announce the publication of the first book in the open access Textbook of World of Minority Languages series, marking a significant milestone in the teaching of world and minority languages.

Designed to meet the needs of today’s students, the open access series consists of contemporary and accessible beginners’ language textbooks of the world’s less commonly taught languages with an emphasis on Indigenous, regional, minority, and endangered languages, as well as ancient languages.

The first title, Baghdadi Judeo-Arabic, focuses on the native tongue spoken by the Jews of Baghdad and other towns of Southern Iraq, historically one of the oldest and biggest Jewish communities. This textbook is dedicated to spoken Baghdadi Judeo-Arabic and is designed to guide beginners to an advanced level, with the goal of enabling basic conversations. It focuses on common expressions of this unique dialect and opens a window to Baghdad’s historic Jewish culture. The 10 lessons guide readers through a particular topic, such as greetings, family, shopping or cuisine, and consist of sample texts, key vocabulary, grammar points and exercises; it also includes free access to audio files, additional activities and links to the exercises.

The series will continue to highlight languages which presently lack easy-to-use English-medium textbooks, complementing the UCL Press open access series Grammars of World and Minority Languages. The textbooks equip both classroom and independent learners with the knowledge of the language’s basic grammatical structures, high frequency vocabulary, and salient cultural topics. For modern spoken languages emphasis is placed on everyday communicative situations, while for ancient languages the focus is on reading texts.

Dhara Snowden, UCL Press textbook Programme manager, said: ‘I’m thrilled to be publishing this important work from Dr. Bar-Moshe. The teaching and learning of rare and minority languages should be supported and protected and this series aims to do just that, by providing high-quality resources for both academics and students. By publishing OA, we remove all financial barriers to access and ability to reuse (under the CC licence) and hope this text reaches a global audience.’